Lab #7 Report Chemical

Lab #7 Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to analyze known solutions of Ba(NO3)2, Ca(NO3)2, Mg(NO3)2 and Sr(NO3)2 (alkaline earths) and known solutions of NaBr, NaCl and NaI (halogens). Then we are given an unknown solution to determine what ions are present. Materials: 1. Test tubes 2. Test tube holder 3. Pipet 4. 1 M H2SO4 5. 0. 1 M Na(NO3)2 6. 0. 1 M Ca(NO3)2 7. 1 M Na2CO3 8. 0. 25 M (NH4)2C2O4 9. 0. 1 M KIO3 10. Bromine water 11. Chlorine water 12. Iodine water 13. 0. 1 M NaCl 14. 0. 1 M NaBr 15. 0. 1 M NaI 16. Unknown (E) Methods:Alkaline Earths 1. Wash the test tubes of any residue 2. Add 12 drops of 1m H2SO4 to four test 3. Then add 12 drops of 0. 1m Ba(NO3)2 to one test tube containing 1M H2SO2 4. Add 12 drops of 0. 1m Ca(NO3)2 to another test tube containing 1M H2SO2 5. Add 12 drops of 0. 1m Mg(NO3)2 to another test tube containing 1M H2SO2 6. Add 12 drops of 0. 1m Sr(NO3)2 to the final test tube containing 1M H2SO2 7. Observe and take notes on the precipitate or the lack of precipitate in each reaction 8. Clean the test tubes after taking notes . Repeat the procedure, but now with 12 drops of 1m Na2CO3 in each test tube 10. Add 12 drops of 0. 1M Ca(NO3)2 to another test tube containing 1M Na2CO3 11. Add 12 drops of 0. 1M Mg(NO3)2 to another test tube containing 1M Na2CO3 12. Add 12 drops of 0. 1M Sr(NO3)2 to the final test tube containing 1M Na2CO3 13. Observe and take notes on the precipitate or the lack of precipitate in each reaction 14. Clean the test tubes after taking the notes 15. Repeat the process with 12 drops of 0. 25M (NH4)2C2O4 16.Observe and take notes on the precipitate or the lack of precipitate in each reaction 17. Clean the test tubes after taking the notes 18. Repeat the process with 12 drops of 0. 1M KIO3 19. Observe and take notes on the precipitate or the lack of precipitate in each reaction 20. Clean the test tubes after taking the notes 21. Repeat the process with 12 drops of unknown (E) 22. Observe and take notes on th e precipitate or the lack of precipitate in each reaction and deduct if it’s Ba(NO3)2, Ca(NO3)2, Mg(NO3)2 or Sr(NO3)2. 23. Clean the test tubes after taking the notesHalogens 1. Place a few drops of bromine water into the test tube and add 12 drops of heptane and shake 2. Repeat the process with chlorine water and iodine water and note any color changes in each 3. Clean the test tubes after taking the notes 4. Get three test tubes and add 12 drops of bromine water to each test tube with 12 drops of HEP 5. Add 12 drops of 0. 1M NaCl to the first test tube, 12 drops of 0. 1M NaBr to the second test tube and 12 drops of 0. 1M NaI to the third test tube 6. Note the color of each reaction 7. Clean the test tubes after taking the notes . Repeat the steps but with 12 drops of chlorine water in each test tube with 12 drops of HEP 9. Observe the color of each reaction 10. Clean the test tubes after taking the notes 11. Repeat the steps but with 12 drops of iodine water in each test tu be with 12 drops of HEP 12. Observe the color of each reaction 13. Clean the test tubes after taking the notes 14. Repeat the steps but with 12 drops of unknown (E) in each test tube with 12 drops of HEP 15. Observe the color of each reaction and deduct if the unknown is either NaBr, NaCl or NaI Results:Alkaline | H2SO4| Na2CO3| (NH4)2C2O4| KIO3| Ba(NO3)2| Cloudy white| Very cloudy white| White precipitate sits on bottom| Tiny amounts of white precipitate| Ca(NO3)2| No reaction | Cloudy white| Cloudy white precipitate| No reaction| Mg(NO3)2| No reaction| White film on top| No reaction | No reaction| Sr(NO3)2| White precipitate on top| White cloudy solution with some white precipitate| Faint white cloudy foggy precipitate| Little amounts of tiny white precipitate| Unknown (E) | No reaction | White film on top| No reaction| No reaction| .Unknown Alkaline Earth: Mg(NO3)2 Reaction between Halogens and Halides | NaBr| NaCl| NaI| Unknown (E)| Bromine water| Light faint yellow| Golden yell ow| Faint yellow tint| Light faint yellow| Chlorine water| Dark yellow amber | Colorless| Light yellow| Dark yellow amber| Iodine water| Light yellow tint| Dark red color| Light yellow| Light yellow tint| Unknown Halogen: NaBr Color of Halogens in solution | Br2| Cl2| I2| Water| Orangey-Brown| Colorless| Brown| HEP| Orange| Colorless| Purple | Conclusion:

Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In?uences: Body Image Disturbance

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 33, No. 5, October 2004, pp. 421–429 ( C 2004) Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences: Body Image Disturbance, Self-Worth, and Psychological Functioning in Preadolescent Children Vicky Phares,1 Ari R. Steinberg,2 and J. Kevin Thompson3 Received April 17, 2003; revised January 20, 2004; accepted February 11, 2004 The connections between body image disturbance and psychological functioning have been well established in samples of older adolescent girls and young women. Little is known, however, about body image in younger children. In particular, little is known about possible gender differences in preadolescent children. The current study explored self-reported body image disturbance and psychological functioning in relation to peer and parental in? uences in 141 elementary school-aged girls and boys aged 8–11. Results suggest that girls are more concerned about dieting and are more preoccupied with their weight than are boys. Girls also reported a greater drive for thinness and a higher level of family history of eating concerns than did boys. Correlations suggested that girls’ experiences of body image concerns (body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness) were related to a number of factors (such as family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences, teasing, depression, and global self-worth) whereas boys’ experiences of body image concerns were related to fewer factors. On the basis of these ? ndings, the assessment and treatment of body image concerns in preadolescent children (especially girls) are of great importance. Implications for intervention and prevention programs are discussed. KEY WORDS: body image; peers; parents. The prevalence of weight and body image concerns among preadolescent children is overwhelming. Between 30 and 50% of adolescent girls are either concerned about their weight or are actually dieting (e. g. , Thompson and 1 Vicky Phares, Ph. D. is a Professor and Director of Clinical Training at the University of South Florida. She received her Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Vermont. Her major research interests are fathers and developmental psychopathology. She recently published a textbook, Understanding Abnormal Child Psychology with Wiley and Sons. To whom correspondence should be addressed at University of South Florida, Department of Psychology, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, PCD 4118G, Tampa, Florida 33620; e-mail: [email  protected] cas. usf. edu. 2 Ari R. Steinberg, Ph. D. graduated from the University of South Florida, where she earned her M. A. in Psychology and her Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology. Her major research interests are cognitive and psychosocial correlates to the development of body image; e-mail: [email  protected] cas. usf. edu. 3 J. Kevin Thompson, Ph. D. is a Professor of Psychology at the University of South Florida. He received his Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Georgia. His major research interests are body image and eating disorders. Smolak, 2001). Such concerns about size and/or appearance have been found to predict onset of eating disturbances prospectively (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Stice, 2001). Although most of the previous research on eating disorders has focused on adult women and adolescent girls, it has recently been shown that weight concerns and body image disturbance exist in younger girls and boys (Cusumano and Thompson, 2001; Field et al. 2001; Ricciardelli and McCabe, 2001; Ricciardelli et al. , 2000; VanderWal and Thelen, 2000). Self-esteem concerns appear to be related to body image disturbance in young children, but there does not appear to be a causal link between self-esteem and body image disturbance (Mendelson et al. , 1996). Speci? cally, body image disturbance and poor self-esteem appear to develop concurrently in young boys and girls. Given the se important issues, the current study attempted to examine the psychological, familial, and social correlates of weight concerns and eating disturbances in preadolescent girls and boys. 21 0047-2891/04/1000-0421/0 C 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 422 BODY IMAGE AND DIETING BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS AND CHILDREN The connections between body image disturbance and psychological maladjustment in adolescence have been well documented. There appears to be pervasive concerns among adolescents with respect to their weight, body image, dieting, and eating behavior (Smolak and Levine, 2001; Thompson et al. , 1999). In fact, averageweight adolescent girls are almost as likely to be dieting as their overweight peers (Rodin et al. , 1985). These patterns are evident in both clinical and nonclinical samples. Bunnell et al. (1992) investigated body shape concerns among 5 samples of female adolescents: anorexia nervosa clients, bulimia nervosa clients, subclinical anorexia, subclinical bulimia, and noneating disordered females. They found that body shape dissatisfaction was a prominent concern for most adolescent girls regardless of their level of eating pathology. Thus, by the time of adolescence, the majority of girls have developed weight and body concerns and many have tried dieting or other strategies to alter their physical appearance. Although these issues have received less research attention in preadolescent children, many of the same patterns have emerged in studies of younger children. Children as young as 6 years old express dissatisfaction with their body and a substantial amount (40%) have attempted to lose weight (Thelen et al. , 1992). There is evidence that children as young as 7 are reliable in their reports of dieting (Kostanski and Gullone, 1999). In a sample of thirdthrough sixth-graders, children were very knowledgeable about weight control methods (Schur et al. , 2000). Body dissatisfaction appears to be related to dietary restraint rather than age. In a study that compared 9-year-olds and 14-year-olds, girls with highly restrained eating patterns in both age groups showed low body esteem, and discontent with their body shape and weight (Hill et al. , 1992). Consistent with research on adolescents and young adults, young girls tend to show this dissatisfaction to a greater extent than boys. In samples of children between the ages of 5 and 11 (Collins, 1991; Cusumano and Thompson, 2001; Williamson and Delin, 2001; Wood et al. 1996), girls reported signi? cantly greater body dissatisfaction than did boys. More girls than boys were dieting in a sample of 10–12 year olds (Sands et al. , 1997). Thus, the â€Å"normative discontent† that is shown in adolescent girls and young women (Rodin et al. , 1985) appears to be present in younger girls as well. FAMILIAL INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE A logical question relates to why these body image disturb ances occur in such young children. Theories of Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson body image disturbance include biological, sociocultural, familial, and peer-related in? ences (Smolak and Levine, 2001; Steinberg and Phares, 2001). Recently, a great deal of attention has been focused on familial and peer in? uences in the development of body image. Regarding familial in? uences, 2 primary mechanisms have been proposed: parental modeling of dysfunctional eating attitudes and behavior, and parents’ in? uence over their children by direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions, such as comments or teasing. There has been support for both mechanisms in adolescent samples. When compared with mothers of daughters in a nonclinical control group, mothers of adolescent girls with disordered eating patterns showed greater eating disturbance, had a longer history of dieting, and wanted their daughters to lose more weight (Pike and Rodin, 1991). Rieves and Cash (1996) found that daughters’ eating disturbances were related to their perceptions of maternal concern with appearance and preoccupation with being overweight. These studies suggest that adolescent girls may be modeling dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors from their parents. There is evidence that parents in? ence their adolescents’ eating disturbances and body image through direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions. Thelen and Cormier (1995) found that mothers’ and fathers’ encouragement of weight control were related to daughters’ desire to be thinner, daughters’ weight, and dieting behaviors. When actual body weight was controlled statistically, only the relationship between daughters’ dieting and fathers’ encouragement to diet remained signi? cant. Direct parental comments about children’s weight had a strong relation with children’s body image, especially mothers’ comments about their daughters (Smolak et al. 1999). Thus, it appears that both maternal and paternal in? uences may be relevant to the development of body image concerns and related issues. These ? ndings suggest that parents can in? uence their attitudes and opinions of weight through direct transmission, although the relative salience of mothers versus fathers has yet to be established. Negative verbal commentary within the family, also known as teasing, has received attention recently. Teasing can be considered an indirect transmission of parental attitudes and opinions. In a sample of lder adolescent college students, parental teasing of females, but not of males, was related to body image dissatisfaction ( Schwartz et al. , 1999). In addition, higher levels of teasing and appearance-related feedback predicted higher levels of psychological disturbance. Taken together, these studies all point to the relationships between adolescents’ body image concerns and parental attitudes and behaviors. Few studies, however, have addressed these issues in younger children. Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences PEER INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE The same point can be made for peer in? uences on body image. Although signi? cant relationships have been found in samples of adolescents, few studies have explored these issues in younger children. When investigating adolescents, one study found that adolescents’ disturbed eating and weight concerns were related to the dieting and weight control strategies of peers as well as to the amount they reported talking with peers about dieting (Levine et al. , 1994). In addition, adolescent girls reported their peers as one of the primary sources of information on weight control and dieting (Desmond et al. , 1986). Adolescent girls, more so than adolescent boys, worried about their weight, ? ure, and popularity with peers (Wadden et al. , 1991). Negative verbal commentary by peers has been explored in relation to body image disturbance. Teasing by peers seems to have a strong in? uence on the development of eating and weight concerns (Rieves and Cash, 1996; Thompson, 1996; Thompson and Heinberg, 1993). Teasing by peers tends to be common durin g childhood with physical appearance and weight as the primary focus. Cash (1995) reported that 72% of college women recalled being teased as children, usually with respect to their facial features or body weight and shape. In a study of adolescent girls, Cattarin and Thompson (1994) found that teasing was a signi? cant predictor of overall appearance dissatisfaction above and beyond the in? uence of age, maturational status, and level of obesity. In one of the few studies done with children, Oliver and Thelen (1996) found that children’s perceptions of peers’ negative messages and increased likability by being thin in? uenced their body image and weight concerns. Overall, peers’ attitudes and teasing appear to in? uence body image concerns. Taken together, these studies suggest patterns of familial and peer in? ence on the development of body image concerns. Little is known, however, about the associations of these issues within young children. Even less is known about how familial and peer in? uences are related to body image concerns and psychological functioning in young girls versus young boys. THE CURRENT STUDY On the basis of the ? ndings with adolescent and young adult popul ations, the current study extends these research questions to preadolescent girls and boys. Because the majority of previous research was limited to maternal in? ences on body image (Phares, 1996), the current study will also extend this line of research to explore paternal in? uences on body image. It was hypothesized that gender effects would be revealed concerning young chil- 423 dren’s body image concerns, with young girls reporting more body dissatisfaction and weight-appearance-related concerns than young boys. It was expected that both girls and boys who reported higher levels of body image concerns would show more psychological problems as exhibited by higher levels of depression and lower levels of perceived competence. Both familial in? uences and peer in? ences were expected to be related to girls’ and boys’ body image and eating concerns. METHOD Participants A total of 141 children (64 boys and 77 girls) from two public elementary schools in a large urban area in the southeast participated in the study. On the basis of a power analysis (? level = 0. 05, power = 0. 80, and a medium effect size), it was determined that a minimum sample size of 64 boys and 64 girls would be adequate to test the hypotheses (Cohen, 1992). The mean age of the overall sample was 9. 23 years (SD = 1. 08) and did not differ between boys (M = 9. 31; SD = 1. 04) and girls (M = 9. 7; SD = 1. 12; t(139) = 0. 79; p = 0. 434). The sample was ethnically diverse (63. 1% Caucasian, 21. 3% African American, 12. 8% Hispanic/Latino/Latina, 0. 7% Asian American, and 2. 1% other). With respect to grade level, 14. 2% were in the second grade, 44. 0% were in the third grade, 27. 6% were in the fourth grade, and 14. 2% were in the ? fth grade. The distribution of girls and boys did not differ for race/ethnicity or for grade level ( ps > 0. 05). A total of 77 mothers and 48 fathers participated in the study. Measures Family In? uences Two measures were used to assess fun ctioning within the family. The Perceptions of Teasing Scale (POTS) is a revised and extended version of the Physical Appearance Related Teasing Scale (Thompson et al. , 1995). The measure has been used with children as young as 10 years old, therefore, the 8- and 9-year-old participants in this study were younger than previous participants who completed the POTS. The Weight Teasing Scale, which consists of 6 questions concerned with the frequency of appearancerelated teasing, was used in the current study. Participants answered these questions for their mother and father separately, and scores were totaled for an overall frequency of parental teasing score. Higher numbers on this 5-point scale re? ect greater frequency of negative verbal commentary. Coef? cient ? s in the current study were adequate for 424 reports of mothers (0. 72) and fathers (0. 84). Note that only 24% of the children in this sample scored above a 0 on this measure. Children, mothers, and fathers completed the Family History of Eating (FHE-Child and FHE-Parent; Moreno and Thelen, 1993). Both versions of the FHE are scored along a 5-point Likert scale and are used to assess attitudes concerning body shape and weight, dieting, and familial eating patterns and behaviors. The parent version assesses parents’ perceptions whereas the child version focuses on the child’s perception of the family. Higher numbers re? ect greater familial concern with body shape and weight. Reliabilities in the current study were adequate based on the coef? cient ? for children (0. 80), mothers (0. 77), and fathers (0. 75). Peer In? uences Children completed the Inventory of Peer In? uence on Eating Concerns (IPIEC; Oliver and Thelen, 1996), which is a 30-item measure of peer in? uence on children’s eating and body shape concerns. The measure consists of 5 factors: Messages, Interactions/Girls, Interactions/Boys, Likability/Girls, and Likability/Boys. The Messages factor re? ects the frequency with which children receive negative messages from peers regarding their body or eating behaviors. The Interactions factors address the frequency with which children interact with peers (boys and girls) about weight and eating habits. The Likability factors measure the degree to which children believe that being thin will increase the degree to which they are liked by their peers (boys and girls). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where higher numbers re? ect greater peer in? uence. For the present study, total mean scale scores of all items were used to calculate a total peer in? uence score. The coef? cient ? in the current study (0. 94) was strong. Obesity Level The Quetelet’s Index of Fatness is a body mass index (BMI) that is computed for each child with the following formula: weight/(squared height). The Quetelet’s Index is used routinely as an index of adiposity and is correlated highly with skinfold and other fatness measures. Height and weight were obtained by self-report. Previous research has shown that young adolescents’ self-reports are highly correlated with actual measurements of weight and height (Brooks-Gunn et al. , 1987; Field et al. , 2002). Eating Disturbance and Body Image Children completed the Eating Disorder Inventory for Children (EDI-C; Garner, 1984), which measures self- Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson perceptions of eating disturbances and body image. Items are answered on a 6-point Likert scale and subscales are averaged to produce mean scale scores. Three of the eight subscales were used in the present study: Drive for Thinness (excessive concern with dieting, preoccupation with weight, and extreme fear of weight gain), Body Dissatisfaction (dissatisfaction with overall shape and with the size of those body regions of most concern to individuals with eating disorders), and Bulimia (thinking about and engaging in uncontrollable overeating, or binging behaviors). Coef? cient ? s were adequate in the current sample for the Drive for Thinness subscale (0. 83), the Body Dissatisfaction subscale (0. 63), and the Bulimia subscale (0. 76). On all subscales, higher numbers re? ect higher levels of body image concerns or related behaviors. Psychological Functioning Children completed 2 measures that assess their psychological functioning. The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992) is a widely used self-report measure of affective, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms of depression in children. Items are scores on a 0- to 2-point scale, with higher scores re? ecting higher levels of depression. The total CDI score, which showed good reliability in the current sample (coef? cient ? = 0. 91) was used. Children also completed the Self-Perception Pro? e for Children (Harter, 1985), which assesses children’s perceptions of themselves across different domains. For the current study, the global self-worth subscale was used. Note that the global self-worth scale consists of questions that are separate from any of the other domains (e. g. , the physical appearance domain is not subsumed under the global se lf-worth rating). Higher scores on the 4-point scale re? ect higher perceptions of global self-worth. Adequate reliability (coef? cient ? = 0. 79) was shown in the current sample. Procedures Active parental consent and child assent were given for involvement in the study. Once consent and assent were obtained and data collection was initiated, no children dropped out of the study nor did any children refuse to take part in the study. Participating children completed questionnaires in small groups at school. Examiners read each question aloud and children put their answers on the questionnaires individually. Parents were mailed their questionnaires (the FHE-P and a brief demographics form) and were asked to return their completed questionnaires to the researchers in a postage-paid envelope. Multiple mail- Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences Table I. Means and t-Tests for Gender Comparisons Variable Body mass index (BMI) Body Dissatisfaction Bulimia Drive for Thinness Family History of Eating—Child Inventory of Peer In? uence on Eating Concerns Perceptions of Teasing—Frequency Depression Global Self-Worth a Statistically 425 Girls (n = 77), mean (SD) 18. 91 (3. 80) 20. 29 (10. 10) 13. 38 (7. 32) 18. 21 (9. 64) 19. 99 (8. 38) 1. 80 (0. 84) 1. 62 (4. 62) 48. 83 (12. 06) 19. 06 (4. 74) Boys (n = 64), mean (SD) 19. 01 (3. 80) 18. 38 (8. 83) 15. 05 (7. 63) 13. 13 (6. 61) 17. 56 (5. 54) 1. 66 (0. 73) 1. 33 (2. 97) 49. 13 (13. 47) 18. 92 (4. 75) t 0. 09 ? 1. 18 1. 32 ? 3. 58 ? 1. 98 ? . 02 ? 0. 44 0. 14 ? 0. 18 p 0. 932 0. 239 0. 188 0. 000a 0. 049a 0. 311 0. 660 0. 892 0. 859 signi? cant. ings were sent in an attempt to obtain maximum parental participation. The ? nal response rate was 54. 6% (n = 77) for mothers and 34. 0% (n = 48) for fathers. RESULTS Gender Comparisons As expected, girls showed somewhat greater concern over weight and body image issues than did boys. Signi? cantly more girls (61. 0%) than boys (35. 9%) wanted to lose weight, ? 2 (2) = 13. 38, p < 0. 001. As can be seen in Table I, there were additional gender differences on body image, restriction, and disturbed eating behaviors measures. When compared with boys, girls reported a higher drive for thinness, t(139) = ? 3. 58; p < 0. 001, and a more troubled family history of eating concerns, t(139) = ? 1. 98; p < 0. 05 (i. e. , girls reported receiving more messages regarding weight and dieting from their parents than did boys). Girls and boys did not differ signi? cantly on body mass index, body dissatisfaction, bulimic behaviors, peers’ eating concerns, or frequency of parental teasing. There were also no gen- der differences in depressive symptoms or global selfworth. Thus, there was some limited support for gender differences. Relations Between Body Image and Psychological Functioning Correlational analyses were computed in order to investigate the relations between body image and psychological functioning. As can be seen in Table II, signi? cant correlations were revealed for all of the measures for girls and most of the measures for boys. Girls’ reports of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tendencies, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth. For boys, body dissatisfaction was related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth. Bulimic tendencies were not significantly related to either depressive symptoms or global self-worth. Drive for thinness was related to lower levels of global self-worth but was not signi? cantly related to depression. Thus, the expected pattern of results was found for girls consistently, and partial support was found for boys. Table II. Correlations Between Eating Disturbance and Psychological Functioning Variables 1 1. Body Dissatisfaction 2. Bulimia 3. Drive for Thinness 4. Family History of Eating—Child 5. Inventory of Peer In? uences on Eating Concerns 6. Perceptions of Teasing—Frequency 7. Depression 8. Global Self-Worth — 0. 42 0. 42 0. 32? 0. 26? 0. 44 0. 37 ?0. 42 2 0. 47 — 0. 25? 0. 23 0. 10 0. 29? 0. 14 ? 0. 01 3 0. 56 0. 55 — 0. 67 0. 32? 0. 60 0. 19 ? 0. 39? 4 0. 53 0. 56 0. 58 — 0. 12 0. 41 ?0. 03 ? 0. 03 5 0. 49 0. 55 0. 48 0. 53 — 0. 18 0. 29? ?0. 21 6 0. 32 0. 34 0. 27? 0. 44 0. 38 — 0. 29? ?0. 37 7 0. 58 0. 60 0. 55 0. 63 0. 59 0. 45 — ? 0. 58 8 ? 0. 64 ?0. 48 ?0. 49 ?0. 52 ?0. 52 ?0. 35 ?0. 71 — Note. Boys are in the lower left quadrant and girls are in the upper right quadrant. ? p < 0. 5; p < 0. 01; p < 0. 001. 426 Relations Between Parental In? uences, Peer In? uences, and Body Image Disturbance Table II also reports the results of correlations for parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance. For girls, all of the correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, girls’ body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of family history of eating concern s, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. For boys, 7 of the 9 correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, boys’ body dissatisfaction was signi? antly related to higher levels of family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. Boys’ tendency toward bulimia was signi? cantly related to perceptions of teasing, but not family history or peer in? uences. Boys’ drive for thinness was related to family history, peer in? uences, and perceptions of teasing. Overall, there was somewhat more support for the connections between parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance for girls, but there was clear evidence of connections for boys when body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were considered. Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson of family history and children’s reports of eating disturbance and body image concerns. These ? ndings suggest that children’s perceptions of family history and parents’ perceptions of family history are not related strongly. Missing Parental Data To assess whether there were systematic differences between parents who did or did not participate, t tests were conducted to examine any possible differences between children whose parents returned questionnaires and those children whose parents did not return questionnaires. With the exception of family history, t(139) = 2. 33, p < 0. 02, no other signi? cant differences were revealed. Children whose parents returned questionnaires reported signi? cantly higher levels of family emphasis on weight and body shape (M = 20. 15, SD = 7. 90) than children whose parents did not return questionnaires (M = 17. 32, SD = 6. 20). There were no signi? cant differences between children with parental data and children without parental data on the following variables: Body Dissatisfaction (from the EDI-C), Bulimia (from the EDI-C), Drive for Thinness (from the EDI-C), peer in? ences (from the IPIEC), or perceptions to teasing (from the POTS). Thus, the exploratory analyses with parental data are likely to be generalizable for all of the variables other than family history. Parental Data For exploratory purposes, paired t tests were conducted to examine the differences in mothers’ and fathers’ reports of parental in? uence regarding weight and body shape co ncerns. Mothers (M = 18. 57, SD = 5. 32) placed more emphasis on weight and body shape concerns than did fathers (M = 15. 94, SD = 5. 29), t(47) = ? 3. 96, p < 0. 001. Further examination of parental differences revealed that mothers reported placing more importance on weight and body image concerns than did fathers for both their daughters, t(29) = ? 2. 93, p < 0. 006, and sons, t(27) = ? 2. 61, p < 0. 01. These results suggest that, regardless of child gender, mothers tend to place more emphasis on weight and dieting than do fathers. To examine the relationship between children’s selfreports and parental reports, correlations were conducted for parents’ reports of family history of eating concerns and children’s reports of eating disturbance and psychological functioning. A signi? cant correlation was revealed for mothers’ reports of family history and children’s reports of family history, r (77) = 0. 25, p < 0. 05. These results suggest that mothers and children perceived similar familial in? uences regarding weight and body shape. In addition, signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal report of family history and children’s report of global self-worth, r (77) = ? 0. 27, p < 0. 05. No other signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal or paternal reports DISCUSSION Overall, the results of this study support and extend previous research suggesting that both parental and peer in? uences are related to the development of body image and weight concerns in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both factors play an integral part in children’s formations of maladaptive beliefs, attitudes, and expectations concerning weight, physical appearance, and body image. Further, there appear to be some differences but some similarities in how girls and boys experience these issues. Similar to previous research, girls in this study exhibited a somewhat greater degree of concern regarding weight and body image issues than did boys. Not only were they more aware of issues surrounding weight and dieting, but girls were more active in attempts to become and/or remain â€Å"thin. † In addition, it appears that girls received more messages within the family setting regarding weight and body image concerns. Although most investigations of body image concerns tend to recruit only female participants (e. g. , Attie and Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Cattarin and Thompson, 1994), the studies of gender differences Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences in body image have used primarily adolescent samples (e. g. , Childress et al. , 1993; reviewed in Cohane and Pope, 2001). The present results support similar ? ndings for preadolescent children, which indicates that these gender differences begin to develop at an earlier age, prior to any pubertal changes (Collins, 1991; Oliver and Thelen, 1996; Shapiro et al. , 1997; Wood et al. , 1996). The results of this study provide support for a relationship between body image concerns and depressive symptoms (Herzog et al. 1992) and self-esteem (Wood et al. , 1996). Overall, children who expressed higher levels of body image disturbance reported higher rates of depressive symptoms and lower levels of global self-worth. Although this pattern was more evident in girls, the same pattern existed for boys when body dissatisfaction was considered. Prior research has revealed support for both parental (Sanftner et al. , 1996; Thelen and Cormier, 19 95) and peer (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Oliver and Thelen, 1996) in? uences on children’s eating and body image concerns. This study found support for peer and parental in? ences for girls and to a lesser extent, for boys. Most of the research on peer in? uences has been conducted with adolescent populations of girls (Levine et al. , 1994). In this study, similar patterns emerged for boys and girls when body dissatisfaction (as opposed to bulimic tendencies) were evaluated. It may be that preadolescent boys are struggling with body dissatisfaction, but in such a manner that is not captured by the measurement of bulimic tendencies. The measurement of parental teasing from the POTS measure was particularly useful in helping to understand boys’ experiences. A number of previous studies have documented the connections between negative verbal commentary and body image concerns in girls (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Schwartz et al. , 1999). In the current study, boys’ perceptions of parental teasing were related to higher levels of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tendencies, drive for thinness, family history of eating concerns, and depression and lower levels of global self-worth. Thus, further exploration of perceptions of parental teasing in both boys and girls may be fruitful. On the basis of the results of this study, the implications for prevention and intervention are numerous. Given the wealth of support for the existence of body image concerns in preadolescent children (Collins, 1991; Shapiro et al. , 1997; Thelen et al. , 1992; Wood et al. , 1996), it is imperative to address weight and body image concerns with children prior to adolescence. Psychoeducational programs could be helpful to inform children of the parental, peer, and sociocultural in? uences on their attitudes and beliefs concerning weight and physical appearance. Several universal psychoeducational programs 427 have been instituted and evaluated for school-aged children (reviewed in Levine and Smolak, 2001). Although this study found some gender differences in preadolescent children’s experiences of body image disturbance, the common pattern of associations among variables for both boys and girls would suggest that preventive efforts could be targeted to girls and boys together. Intervention programs are also necessary given the connections between familial in? uences and body image concerns in young children and the resultant connections between body image concerns and eating disorders (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Steinhausen and Vollrath, 1993; Thompson et al. 1999). Parents need to be educated about the negative consequences of their own weight and body image issues on the development of related problems in their children (Archibald et al. , 1999). Treatment programs should take family functioning into account and should address the strong connections between body image concerns and poor psychological functioning (Steinberg and Phares, 2001). There are several limitations to t he study indicating that these results should be interpreted with caution. First, the ross-sectional nature of the study precludes interpretations related to causality. For example, it could be that higher levels of depression lead to higher rates of body dissatisfaction in both boys and girls. A prospective study of girls and boys from early childhood to adolescence and even adulthood could help answer the direction of causality. In addition, because there was a signi? cant difference in family history of eating concerns (FHE-C) between children with and without completed parental data, the preliminary analyses of parental reports have to be viewed cautiously. Although other studies have found relatively few differences between participating and nonparticipating mothers and fathers (Phares, 1995), the differences in this sample suggest that the parental data may not be representative of the larger population. This study attempted to limit common method variance by including parents rather than just relying on children’s self-reports. This inclusion of parents, however, led to other dif? culties. Future studies in this area could bene? t from more intense efforts to recruit and maintain parents for participation in research. Even with these limitations, this study provided support for parental and peer in? uences on the development of body image disturbance in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both peers and family members contribute to the development of body image disturbance and weight concerns of young children. Although girls appear to be at greater risk for these concerns, this study suggests that attention to both boys’ and girls’ development of body image concerns is warranted. 428 ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study was completed as part of a masters thesis by the ? rst author under the direction of the second and third authors. REFERENCES Archibald, A. B. , Graber, J. A. , and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). Associations among parent–adolescent relationships, pubertal growth, dieting, and body image in young adolescent girls: A short-term longitudinal study. J. Res. Adolesc. , 9: 395–415. Attie, I. , and Brooks-Gunn, J. (1989). Development of eating problems in adolescent girls: A longitudinal study. Dev. Psychol. 25: 70– 79. Brooks-Gunn, J. , Warren, M. P. , Rosso, J. , and Gargiulo, J. (1987). Validity of self-report measures of girls’ pubertal status. Child Dev. 58: 829–841. Bunnell, D. W. , Cooper, P. J. , Hertz, S. , and Shenker, I. R. (1992). Body shape concerns among adolescents. Int. J. Eating Disord. 11: 79– 83. Cash, T. F. (1995). Developmental teasing about physical appearance: Retrospective descriptions and relationships with body image. Soc. Behav. Pers. 23: 123–129. Cattarin, J. A. , and Thompson, J. K. (1994). A three-year longitudinal study of body image, eating disturbance, and general psychological functioning in adolescent females. Eating Disord. 2: 114–124. Childress, A. C. , Brewerton, T. D. , Hodges, E. L. , and Jarrell, M. P. (1993). The kids’ eating disorders survey (KEDS): A study of middle school students. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 32: 843–849. Cohane, G. H. , and Pope, H. G. (2001). Body image in boys: A review of the literature. Int. J. Eating Disord. 29: 373–379. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychol. Bull. 112: 155–159. Collins, M. E. (1991). Body ? gure perceptions and preferences among preadolescent children. Int. J. Eating Disord. 10: 199–208. Cusumano, D. L. , and Thompson, J. K. (2001). Media in? uence and body image in 8–11 year-old boys and girls: A preliminary report on the Multidimensional Media In? uence Scale. Int. J. Eating Disord. 29: 37–44. Desmond, S. M. , Price, J. H. , Gray, N. , and O’Connell, J. K. (1986). The etiology of adolescents’ perceptions of their weight. J. Youth Adolesc. 15: 461–473. Field, A. E. , Austin, S. B. , Frazier, A. L. , Gillman, M. W. , Camargo, C. A. , and Colditz, G. A. (2002). Smoking, getting drunk, and engaging in bulimic behaviors: In which order are the behaviors adopted? J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 41: 846–853. Field, A. E. , Camargo, C. A. , Taylor, C. B. , Berkey, C. S. , Roberts, S. B. , and Colditz, G. A. (2001). Peer, parent, and media in? uences on the development of weight concerns and frequent dieting among preadolescent and adolescent girls and boys. Pediatrics 107: 54–60. Garner, D. M. (1984). Eating Disorder Inventory for Children (EDI-C). Unpublished manuscript. Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the Self-Perception Pro? le for Children. Department of Psychology, University of Denver, Colorado. Herzog, D. B. , Keller, M. B. , Sacks, N. R. , Yeh, C. J. , and Lavori, P. W. (1992). Psychiatric comorbidity in treatment-seeking anorexics and bulimics. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 31: 810–818. Hill, A. J. , Oliver, S. , and Rogers, P. J. (1992). Eating in the adult world: The rise of dieting in childhood and adolescence. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 31: 95–105. Kostanski, M. and Gullone, E. (1999). Dieting and body image in the child’s world: Conceptualization and behavior. J. Genet. Psychol. 160: 488–499. Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s Depression Inventory: CDI Manual. Multi-Health Systems, North Tonawanda, NY. Inc. Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson Levine, M. P. , and Smolak, L. (2001). Primary prevention of body image dist urbances and disordered eating in childhood and early adolescence. In Thompson, J. K. , and Smolak, L. , (eds. ), Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity in Youth: Assessment, Prevention, and Treatment. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 37–260. Levine, M. P. , Smolak, L. , Moodey, A. F. , Shuman, M. D. , and Hessen, L. D. (1994). Normative developmental challenges and dieting and eating disturbances in middle school girls. Int. J. Eating Disord. 15: 11–20. Mendelson, B. K. , White, D. R. , and Mendelson, M. J. (1996). Selfesteem and body esteem: Effects of gender, age, and weight. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 17: 321–346. Moreno, A. , and Thelen, M. H. (1993). Parental factors related to bulimia nervosa. Addictive Behav. 18: 681–689. Oliver, K. K. , and Thelen, M. H. (1996). Children’s perceptions of peer in? uence on eating concerns. Behav. Ther. 7: 25–39. Phares, V. (1995). Fathers’ and mothers’ participatio n in research. Adolescence 30: 593–602. Phares, V. (1996). Fathers and developmental psychopathology. New York: Wiley. Pike, K. M. , and Rodin, J. (1991). Mothers, daughters, and disordered eating. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 100: 198–204. Ricciardelli, L. A. , and McCabe, M. P. (2001). Children’s body image concerns and eating disturbance: A review of the literature. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 21: 325–344. Ricciardelli, L. A. , McCabe, M. P. , and Ban? eld, S. (2000). Body image and body change methods in adolescent boys: Role of parents, friends, and the media. J. Psychosom. Res. 49: 189–197. Rieves, L. , and Cash, T. F. (1996). Social developmental factors and women’s body-image attitudes. J. Soc. Behav. Pers. 11: 63–78. Rodin, J. , Silberstein, L. R. , and Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1985). Women and weight: A normative discontent. In Sonderegger, T. B. (ed. ), Psychology and Gender: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp. 267–307. Sands, R. , Tricker, J. , Sherman, C. , and Armatas, C. (1997). Disordered eating patterns, body image, self-esteem, and physical activity in preadolescent school children. Int. J. Eating Disord. 1: 159– 166. Sanftner, J. L. , Crowther, J. H. , Crawford, P. A. , and Watts, D. D. (1996). Maternal in? uences (or lack thereof) on daughters’ eating attitudes and behaviors. Eating Disord. 4: 147–159. Schur, E. A. , Sanders, M. , and Steiner, H. (2000). Body dissatisfaction and dieting in young children. Int. J. Eating Disord. 27: 74â₠¬â€œ82. Schwartz, D. J. , Phares, V. , Tantleff-Dunn, S. , and Thompson, J. K. (1999). Body image, psychological functioning, and parental feedback regarding physical appearance. Int. J. Eating Disord. 25: 339– 343. Shapiro, S. , Newcomb, M. , and Loeb, T. B. (1997). Fear of fat, disregulated-restrained eating, and body esteem: Prevalence and gender differences among eight- to ten-year-old children. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 26: 358–365. Smolak, L. , and Levine, M. P. (2001). Body image in children. In Thompson, J. K. , and Smolak, L. (eds. ), Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity in Youth: Assessment, Prevention, and Treatment. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 41– 66. Smolak, L. , Levine, M. P. , and Schermer, F. (1999). Parental input and weight concerns among elementary school children. Int. J. Eating Disord. 25: 263–271. Steinberg, A. B. , and Phares, V. (2001). Family functioning, body image, and eating disturbances. In Thompson, J. K. , and Smolak, L. (eds. ), Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity in Youth: Assessment, Prevention, and Treatment. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 127–147. Steinhausen, H. , and Vollrath, M. (1993). The self-image of adolescent patients with eating Disord. Int. J. Eating Disord. 13: 221–227. Stice, E. (2001). Risk factors for eating pathology: Recent advances and future directions. In R. Striegel-Moore & L. Smolak (Eds. ), Eating Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? ences disorders: Innovative directions in research and practice (pp. 51– 73). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Thelen, M. H. , and Cormier, J. (1995). Desire to be thinner and weight control among children and their parents. Behav. Ther. 26: 85– 99. Thelen, M. H. , Lawrence, C. , and Powell, A. (1992). Body image, weight control, and eating disorders among children. In Crowther, J. H. , Tennebaum, D. L. , Hobfoll, S. E. , and Stephens, M. A. P. (eds. ), The Etiology of Bulimia Nervosa: The Individual and Familial Context. Hemisphere, Washington, DC, pp. 82–102. Thompson, J. K. (1996). Assessing body image disturbance: Measures, methodology, and implementation. In Thompson, J. K. (ed. ), Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity: An Integrative Guide for Assessment and Treatment. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 49–82. Thompson, J. K. , Cattarin, J. , Fowler, B. , and Fisher, E. (1995). The Perception of Teasing Scale (POTS): A revision and extension of the Physical Appearance Related Teasing Scale (PARTS). J. Pers. Assess. 65: 146–157. Thompson, J. K. , and Heinberg, L. J. (1993). Preliminary test of two hypotheses of body image disturbance. Int. J. Eating Disord. 14: 59–63. 429 Thompson, J. K. , Heinberg, L. J. , Altabe, M. , and Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Thompson, J. K. , and Smolak, L. (2001). Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: The future is now. In Thompson, J. K. , and Smolak, L. (eds. ), Body Image, Eating Disorders, and Obesity in Youth: Assessment, Prevention, and Treatment. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 1– 39. VanderWal, J. S. , and Thelen, M. H. 2000). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in elementary-age school girls. Eating Behav. 1: 105–122. Wadden, T. 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Reflective Practice Essay I am writing this reflective journal in accordance with the CNO`s reflective practice standards and the LEARN model. Though my time on 600A has only just begun I have learned so much. Like many second year students, this is my first experience in the hospital. It has proven to be much different than my previous clinical experiences. My time with my first client stands out in my mind as a key learning experience. I like to believe that I am caring and compassionate with everyone I meet, especially in a professional setting. This particular client was a lady in her early 80s. She was good natured and very easy to get along with. She was cognitively aware and quite bright. As a result of bowel surgery she had an ostomy. This was new to her and I could tell she was unsure about it. My first day with her we did a lot of chatting and sharing. She told me about her husband, children and career as a kindergarten teacher. This helped build a certain level of comfort with me as a caregiver. I had her to come for walks with me down the hall and once she was up and moving she said she felt much better. I helped her with her first shower post-op. I made her feel more comfortable by promising to stay outside the door while she was in there. When she was finished, I helped her to apply lotion to her dry skin and at her request gave her a good back rub. My shift ended and I said my goodbyes. My client told me she was sad to see me go and was looking forward to my return the next morning. That night when I went home I did some research into ostomies. Through my textbooks and previous experience I had a solid knowledge of the basic care but just in case I wanted to refresh. I was excited to return to clinical the next morning. My client had a big smile for me when I walked into her room. Throughout the evening the ostomy nurse had come in, did some assessments and quickly taught my client how to empty and clean the appliance. Unfortunately since the nurse was very busy she did not have the time practice with her. My client told me she was unsure and nervous about performing the task. Since I had taken the extra time to do the research the night before, I was able to take the client into  the bathroom and walk her through the steps. I had the knowledge necessary to put my client at ease and make her feel more comfortable with this new situation. My client went home that day while I was still on shift. Before she left she thanked me and told me she wouldn`t have felt ready to leave if I had not been able to teach her about the appliance. She even made sure I met her husband and he thanked me as well. I felt very proud to be a student nurse that day. I believe I had a positive impact on that client. I took the time to care for the client and attend to her post-operative needs. As the former president of the CNO, Sandra Ireland said, Nursing is not like any other job — it is a profession that allows us to influence lives in ways that we know and ways that we cannot imagine. Clients and families carry with them the words of comfort, caring and encouragement you say during difficult times and throughout the rest of their lives. (Ireland, 1998) My client had a big adjustment to make and I was there to offer the support she needed. By taking the time to care about my client, not only as a client but as a person I was able to make her stay at the hospital a better experience for her and her family. She felt comfortable and well cared for and her husband was more at ease knowing people were there to care when he couldn`t be. I was able to anticipate the client`s needs and prepare myself to assist with those needs as they arose. The Sault College Practical Nursing Program beliefs on caring are outlined in the student success guide. It states, â€Å"Caring is the essence of nursing practice. When caring is the foundation for helping relationships, each person is a partner in growth towards optimal health. The interpersonal connection between caregiver and client transcends time, gender and technology. It is our view that caring, as an interpersonal interaction can be learned. A caring nurse strives for competence and excellence in the professional practice. Caring can be modeled, acquired, practiced, perfected and evaluated.† (Sault College of Applied Arts Technology School of Health Community Services, 2008) Based on this principle of caring I feel I did a good job of caring for my client post-operative needs. I was able to form a  caring relationship with her. I was competent in the skills I performed with her and she left me healthier than when we first met. My care was lacking a holistic approach. Looking back I did an excellent job at caring for this woman and her new ostomy but I forgot about just the woman. Lois White explains, nursing the whole person: physical, emotional, intellectual, psychological, spiritual and sociocultural, is essential to ensure the health and well-being of a client in the healthcare system. By ignoring the other areas I did not provide the best care I’m capable of. She may have had some self-esteem issues related to having this appliance or concerns about how others will react, especially her family and friends. An ostomy is a huge adjustment to make and as the nurse I could have offered some support. The more time I get to practice caring and working on interpersonal connections with clients the better I will be at caring. I believe caring is an art and a skill and they only way to perfect it is to do it. I will try spending more time thinking and planning how I am going care for my clients. I will reflect on how my work with clients affected them and gauge this with their reactions. The client themselves are in the best position to evaluate my skills as a caregiver. This week when I return to the clinical setting I will put my new approach into action. After data collecting I will think about more about the holistic person than just treatments involved with their current surgery or illness. I will do my best to identify any issues fears the client is facing and offer support for these. I will speak to my client about their mental and social wellness and do my best to assess their status within my scope. If nothing more I may be able to offer brochures or phone numbers for support groups in the area. While working with the nurses, I will observe their interactions with the clients and the care they provide. I will attempt to use the good I see and learn from the bad. If I find someone with a style of caring I truly admire I will find time to discuss it with them and take in any jewels of wisdom  they have to offer me. At the end of the day or when I find a quiet moment I will reflect on the care I provided that day. I will think about my clients, and how I made them feel. My goal is receive positive feedback from all the clients I interact with each clinical day, whether it is verbal or a simple smile. I will leave my clients knowing that I provided them with the best, holistic care I could. I would also like to take some time either on a break or after clinical ends and really talk to my classmates about how they feel they are doing. We could discuss not just the new skills we learned and may have preformed, as per usual, but their progress with caring. Through this reflection I expanded my definition of care. I have always provided good care for my client’s ailments but I never took the time to really think about everything they may need to feel well again. Secondly I realized in order to be a truly caring nurse you need to take the time to think about your actions and interactions with clients. Reflecting back on the day, whether it is formal and written as in this journal or with classmates on the way home, will help me learn, grow and develop as a nurse. References: Ireland, S. (March 2004). President`s message. The Standard, 29 (1), 4. Sault College of Applied Arts Technology School of Health Community Services. (2008). Practical nursing program student success guide 2008-2009. Sault Ste Marie, ON. White, Lois. (2000). Foundations of Nursing: Caring for the Whole Person. Albany,NY: Cengage Learning

Ethics And Values

Ethics And Values Ethical dilemma The ethical dilemma I will discuss will be based on some truth of an event that happened when I was a support worker five years ago in a mental health trust organisation. The patient will be referred to as girl ‘A and members of the multidisciplinary team will be referred to as professionals. A very brief description of the girls mental health illness was schizophrenia this can have an effect on a persons mind in such a way that they can hear voices and send smells that are not real to the human eye. Other features can include delusional thoughts this is where the person can believe that certain situations and circumstances have happened to them and it is very clear to the person on the contrary it can make a person feel that others do not believe them (CAMHS, 2002). The ethical dilemma Girl ‘A was 15 years of age, when she was sectioned under the 1983 Mental Health Act section 2. Girl ‘A received a letter from a friend at home. This letter revealed that her friend had been raped from girl ‘As mothers boyfriend. Girl ‘A had prior to this letter disclosed to the nursing team that she herself had been raped from her mothers boyfriend. She decided not to take action for fear of losing the relationship she had recently built up with her mother. At this time the girl wanted her mother to never find out about the disclosure of this rape ordeal. The friend told girl ‘A that this situation was going to court. At this point girl ‘A decided it was time to put closure on her own rape ordeal and therefore wanted to go to court and declare her own rape ordeal. The ethical dilemma is should the girl called go to court or not? Reference Reading from Leathard, A. McLaren. (2007) Ethics contemporary challenges in health and social care. The Policy Press: UK. There are three more approaches which often conflict with many ethical problems they are deontology, conceptualism and virtue ethics (Leathard McLaren, 2007). It approaches can give directions to ethical dilemmas. Consequentialism -also referred to as utiliarism discovered by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The aims of this approach are consider the consequences of taking a particular form of action (ibid). All areas of an ethical dilemma using this approach would be given equal weight when considering the outcome (ibid). In health care this approach can be seen to be used when considering decisions that need to be made about the allocation of resources (ibid). Personal Values my personal values You will describe your values but there is no right/wrong answer to this. It is basically how you presented your dilemma to the ethic group |Julie. How does my personal knowledge, culture, and life experience affect this dilemma for you? feelings What values are in conflict and how has this made you feel? What were your fears? Given similar circumstances with another person would the outcome be the same? how do these impact on the questions you asked resp. to me as a person PROCESS How and why am I making a choice I am making i.e., what did I think, feel, and what did I do or not do? How was my decision making affective by what factors of legislation, standards, policies and organisational policies/procedures and values? What other resources would be helpful to me in making the decisions about the dilemma? Keep using reflection I think this part Julie is where you have begun to described the different ethical approaches. Deontology deon means duty and ology is the science, this approach was discovered by Kantian. The aims of this approach does not consider the consequences rather it acts on what is morally right, in particular deontologists treat the situation or client with respect for individuality which is its greatest importance. This approach would not approve of telling lies to a client even if it was in the best interest. Any decision is made using deontology would have to be based on fact. Duty based theories which would allow the worker and the client to acts of the greatest outcome which would avoid harm. This approach recognises autonomy, trust and the equity of provisions (ibid). Virtue derived from Aristotelian ideologies. Thomas Aquinas (1990) defines virtue ethics is not only knowledge but also the approach taken to provide integration using this knowledge for an ethical dilemma situation, an area of â€Å"manifestation of ethical professional behaviour† (ibid: 71). Virtue ethics describe a persons character beliefs and values quality is in actions that they believe are morally sound. Beauchamp and Childress (1989) describe four ethical principles that should be considered when dealing with any ethical dilemma they are: beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy and justice (ibid: 72). However these four ethical principles at times can conflict therefore critical judgement is required when choosing a particular procedure to take. These four ethical principles they can provide a framework to assist the worker(s)/client(s) situation by empowering the thinking process, this helps with the decision process of the ethical dilemma (ibid). In virtuous practitioner must take into account the different viewpoints by recognising the potential conflicts that can happen between these four ethical principles. It is therefore recommended that a practitioner makes critical judgements as to which approach would be more appropriate to the ethical dilemma. â€Å"Gardiner (2003) comments that the virtuous practitioner is driven by deep desire to behave well and that this approach has a flexibility that can encourage innovative solutions while acknowledging that there will often be elements of pain or regret† (ibid: 76). So from the ethical dilemma if beneficence was applied the patients best interest and wishes and feelings would have been considered using this approach. Although, it could appear harmful to the patient, if the sole views of her situation were considered because this could have had an adverse effect on the best interests of the patient. Non-maleficence applying this approach to the ethical dilemma could show how the professional has protected the patient from actual or potential harm; this is particularly successful when the practitioner evaluates his/her knowledge and skills realistically ensuring any form of intervention is taken within their professional capacity. However should the worker feel there could be limitations then they should seek and share this information with the team of professionals caring for the girl? This particular approach may have been applied from support worker/primary care workers point of view this is because non-maleficence provides the support worker/primary care worker with more details from the clients perspective of the situation whereas; a professional may only work with the girl on if few occasions. Therefore the implications of the support worker/primary care worker not sharing information with other professionals can cause great harm to the patient. If the support worker/prima ry care worker advises the patient â€Å"there is nothing more I can do† then this will be harmful and unhelpful to the patient (ibid: 74). Autonomy the principle of autonomy and impact on disclosure and confidentiality. However a patient has a right to information about their condition and their situation, the patients views beliefs and values should be respected. Although, legally the girl in the ethical dilemma was sectioned under the 1983 mental health act section 2 and therefore their grounds a practitioner must take with regards to an appropriate decision this can conflict the patients best interest/wishes and feelings. Using the ethical dilemma in this instance shows when â€Å"beneficence or non-maleficence overruling patient autonomy† (ibid: 75). The practitioner will endeavour to the first duty to the patient however the practitioner must balance this duty to the patient with regard to the wider risks and involvement of others. Gillon (2003), autonomy is a component of the other three ethical principles and autonomy should take priority with respect for the patient (ibid). Justice and equity â€Å"The Aristotelian principles suggest that I trust system should ensure equal and should be treated equally and unequals unequally† (ibid: 77). Considering justice and equity to the ethical dilemma the patient may feel the decision to not go to court un-fair. However the practitioner should deliver an Albanys about the criteria that was used to make the decisions they made about this ethical dilemma. The principles of justice and equity can allow for decisions to be made and distributed according to the patients need, merits, capacity or rights. In this situation a practitioner may remind the patient of her rights in respect to a complaints procedure (ibid). ISSUES POWER/polices What are the rights of the child? What rights as a person? Are there any rights in terms of seeking closure? All your doing here is answering and showing Why and what policies may be used with this dilemma. Julie notes for power every child matters is a Green paper that was published in 2003 by the government as a response to the death of Victoria Climbie. In 2000 for the childrens act became law from a thorough consultation process and it is this legislation that underpins the legalities of Every Child Matters, by ensuring five necessary outcomes are followed when ensuring the health, safety and well being of children from birth to 19 years. The five outcomes are being healthy, staying safe, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and achieving economic well-being (Every Child Matters, 2003 Cited in http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/everychildmatters/about/ on 20/10/09 @ 13:05). RESP.OF ORG. What is the organisations point of view? Ie NHS, CAMHS why do they use them what are the values of these principles to s/u Organisations policies This report sets out a new vision for the future of mental health and well-being in England. Based on four principles, it outlines the priorities we believe should underpin mental health policy for the next decade. Our four principles for mental health policy are: Mental health and well-being is everybodys business. It affects every family in Britain and it can only be improved if coordinated, assertive action is taken across Whitehall and at all levels of government. Good mental health holds the key to a better quality of life in Britain. We need to promote positive mental health, prevent mental ill health and intervene early when people become unwell. People should get as much support to gain a good quality of life and fulfil their potential from mental health services as they expect to receive from physical healthcare services. Mental health care should offer hope and support for people to recover and live their lives on their own terms. We need a new relationship between mental health services and those who use them. Service users, carers and communities should be offered an active role in shaping the support available to them. With these principles at the heart of policy, we believe we can create a society in which good mental health is nurtured and in which mental ill health is managed well. As a consequence, our mental well-being will be a core concern of government. Effective action to promote good mental health will be taken among people of all ages and diverse backgrounds. People who experience mental distress will receive timely support to live well and have a fair and equal chance to fulfill their potential. The actions that would be needed to make our vision a reality are summarized overleaf. (Health, 2009) Organisation/mental health What is sectioning? Most patients in hospital wards cannot be prevented from leaving when they wish, and their consent must be obtained before treatment is given. The same applies to most patients who are in hospital for psychiatric treatment. They do not object to being in hospital or being treated and are referred to as ‘informal or ‘voluntary patients. However, the Mental Health Act 1983 allows some people to be detained in hospital. When this happens, they are called ‘detained patients and their consent to treatment may no longer be required. This is often known as being ‘sectioned. Some people are detained in hospital by the courts after being charged with a crime. (See Mind rights guide 5: mental health and the courts.) However, most people are detained under the ‘civil sections of the Mental Health Act, which does not involve a court at all. This booklet sets out what must happen before someone can be detained under a civil section, and outlines some of the effects. Mind rights guides 2-5 describe, in more detail, other relevant information about consent to treatment and what to do if you are being detained and you want to leave hospital. What is the process for detaining someone under a civil section? There are two main civil sections of the Mental Health Act 1983, which are used to detain someone: section 2 and section 3. For each section, three people must agree that the individual needs to be detained. Usually, they would be an Approved Mental Health Professional (AMHP), a section 12 approved doctor and a registered medical practitioner. The two doctors must agree the person needs to be in hospital and recommend detention. Then, the AMHP decides whether or not to make an application for the persons compulsory admission to hospital. The Nearest Relative (NR) (see below) has the right to make an application. However, the Mental Health Act Code of Practice makes it clear that an AMHP is the preferred applicant and applications by an NR are very rare (the preference for the AMHP as applicant over the NR is re-stated in the new Code of Practice at para 4.28). It does not matter where the person is at the time. They may be at home, in hospital, in a place of safety, or in a police station following an arrest for an alleged criminal offence. In an urgent situation, someone may be admitted to hospital compulsorily, with only one medical recommendation to support an application (section 4). This is allowed if it is felt the criteria for section 2 (see below) are met, but there is no time to wait for another medical recommendation. The second medical recommendation must be obtained within 72 hours. It is important to note that people need not have committed a crime to be detained under a civil section. The law allows anyone to be detained under the procedure described above. What do the different civil sections mean? Section 2 allows for a person to be detained if they are suffering from a mental disorder and they need to be detained, at least for a limited period, for assessment (or for assessment followed by medical treatment) for their own health or safety, or for the protection of other people. Detention can last for up to 28 days. The section cant be renewed, but you may be assessed before the 28 days expires to see if detention under section 3 is necessary. Section 3 allows for a person to be detained if they have a mental disorder, and it is necessary for their own health or safety, or for the protection of other people, and treatment cannot be provided unless they are detained in hospital. A patient cannot be detained under this section unless the doctors also agree that appropriate medical treatment is available for him or her. Detention can last for up to six months. The section can then be renewed by six months, initially, and by a year at a time, subsequently (MIND, 2009). Other professionals Alan suggest the Mental Health Act could be one. What rights does she have under this ACT? Who was present? Consider their positions, charaters, virtues, values ect. why is it a dilemma DEONTOLOGY This is what is meant by your code of conduct this is the link between philsophy and practice it is through the codes of conduct. You will show how the philosophy feeds into codes of conduct and then feeds into practice. Alan explains this is about respect for the person and autonomy. So you need to say A deontology approach would argue this. and this approach would be used because of this Alan gives an example of how to apply this to your scenario: Julie you could argue from one position that deontology is a person in her own right, this does not exist therefore the duty is to the right of this person this is quite deontological this approach also looks at Law, human rights, that sort of thing. Most social workers are this approach All you have to do here is say how and why this approach may be applied to the scenario and where it come from i.e., KANT Consequential/Unitarianism This is what is meant by your code of conduct this is the link between philsophy and practice it is through the codes of conduct. You will show how the philosophy feeds into codes of conduct and then feeds into practice. Alan notes. â€Å"A unitarism approach would argue this. and this approach would be used because of this.Alan example of how to hit this, Consequentialism would suggest you look at the outcomes, if we do not intervene at this point and show some support then this person will suffer damage, they could be harmed that is more this approach and this is the link I want you to make. Most social worker are this approach. All your doing here is saying where did this approach come from how and why would it be used in your dilemma virtue ethics Virtue ethics = the character of the person, so in the same way that I was arguing with the boys you could argue your point of view with your dilemma Alan. Questions to ask and answer with these approaches are: What is the thing that makes one of them valid? â€Å"Probably the character of the person doing the argument†! other words you Julie are very dominate and persuading and therefore one needs to ask is your position genuine? I s it a valid argument? Are you taking it from integrity (honesty, goodness) or serenity (calm, peace, composure, calmness)? All you doing here is saying where this approach came from and why and how would it be used in this dilemma Code of ethic Values These three streams of values in social work influence our practice and are described as TRADITIONAL (being to the tradition route), EMANCIPATORY (to give independence to free someone from something) AND GOVERNANCE (controlled or overlooked by government) Values. How did the GSCC; BASW; and NOS codes of ethics guide your decision and practice outcomes? social constructionist view bibliography

Socially Responsible Investing And Morally Responsible Investing Management Essay

Socially Responsible Investing And Morally Responsible Investing Management Essay Introduction The last decades a bid debate is going on about the responsibility of business. The most known debate is the one that started with the book of Milton Friedman (1962) Capitalism and Freedom. Then at 1970 Friedman published an article at the New York Times Magazine, repeating his views on corporate responsibilities and he supported them further. After that publication many responses where published from many scholars (ex. Mulligan 1986, Shaw 1988, Nunan 1988) each one arguing for or against Friedmans views. One of the well-promoted debates is the one between Friedman and Freeman who is a major supporter of the stakeholder theory. This last debate ended with the death of Friedman and the essay of Freeman (2008) that he is ending the debate. The main argument between the scholars is focused in the following phrase of Friedman (1962, 1970): there is one and only one social responsibility of business-to use it resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud.. In this essay I will try to focus on these rules of the game in now days, the demands of the global market and some arguments that confirm a change in the rules or at least a movement toward a fundamental change. The New Rules of the Game In short time after Friedmans publications, Davis (1973) presented a very prophetically article. He tried to illustrate argument for and against social responsibility, presenting very accurate the issues that led to the CSR development and spreading. Among others he spotted the benefits of CSR towards the public image of a company, the long-run self-interest, the implications from government regulation, social norms and the increasing stockholder interest toward responsible behavior. Cooper suggests that Friedman was right, since the rules of the game are now changed, and have nothing to do with the rules in 1970 that extended only to the basic free market principles. He argues that now the societys expectations of business are including also environmental concern, consumer safety, ethical governance and other. A modern company has to deal with multiple stakeholders that are increasing because of the rising interest and also because of the globalization of the markets. NGOs, trade un ions, consumers organizations, all are trying to influence with the companys activities and support their interests. So now CSR has to go beyond corporate philanthropy and charity work. Row (2006) argues that now there is greater awareness that CSR encompasses not only what companies do with their profits, but also how they make them. For better understanding of the changes of the rules I will present some of those that had change and what is required, from a company, to deal with now. Public Image Vivien and Thompson (2005) in their essay commented the study of FTSE 100 that found that, in UK, around 60 percent of the firms market value was not reflected in the balance sheet. That means that the value of a firm is coming also from other non-financial assets. Deephouse (2000) proposed that reputation is the most competitive advantage that companies can have. With the development of the media and the technology, it is crucial for a company to have a good public image. It is now very easy to spread out a problem that occurred in a company, something that in the past was more difficult due lack of means. Now with the internet almost anybody in the world can express an opinion and be read (or heard) by anyone in the world. So a minor problem can easily take global dimension and publicity. Also with the rising number of multinationals millions of people are becoming stakeholders and are interested in the activities of these companies. Fombrun (1996) stated that reputation is based o n stories various stakeholders tell about the organization. Now with millions of stakeholders, there are millions of stories to be told and the technology provides the means to do it. Fombrun (1998) also lists six criteria that effect reputation of a company in the public eye: financial performance, product quality, employee treatment, community involvement, environmental performance and organizational issues. It is easy to see that many of these criteria are connected with CSR strategies. So CSR can assist a company to create or preserve a good public image, something that in the past was not essential for the business. Rowe (2006) argues that the growing numbers of NGOs, campaigning groups and activist organizations can strongly affect the image of a company. Some years before the numbers of these stakeholders and their power were far smaller. Friedman, driven by the political status of cold war, was facing any critic on the system as a socialist or communistic approach. Now, in a globalized market, these stakeholders have an important role and influent consumers, shareholders and more or less even nations. People in different countries have different values but the structure of human value system is universal (Schwartz, 1994, 1999). That is why a bad image can affect the stakeholders around the world, even if they have different values. But we should not forget that reputation also affects shareholders behavior. When having substance, favorable reputation attracts stakeholders as well as shareholders and investors for usually creating refection of investments security and trustworthy treading partner (Dowling, 2004; Gregory, 1991). Government Regulation Some years ago the balance of power shifted away from government in favor of corporations. Under globalization, deregulation, privatization and technological innovation accelerated that phenomenon (Rowe, 2006). But now, in the post-Enron world and in the middle of a global economic crisis, voices raising and asking for more regulation. Greenfield (2006) argues that the law governing corporations need to be more protective of corporations. Lydenberg and Sinclair (2009) argue that there may be battles between corporations, government and NGOs over the appropriate circumstances for regulation and the degree of that regulation, but the ground rules will have changed only when corporations are seen fighting for, not against, such oversight. CSR, for now, is a voluntary initiative that corporations are taking beyond their legal requirements. Reporting CSR initiatives was part of the communication strategy of each company. Now governments and regulators increasingly expect, and are beginnin g to require, CSR reporting (Lydenberg and Sinclair, 2009). Governments, especially in Europe, ask from public traded companies to include social and environmental indicators in their reports to shareholders (Lydenberg and Sinclair, 2009). National pension funds are required to adopt social and environmental guidelines for their investments. Also raising economies and markets, such as China, are requiring from the state-owned companies to report their CSR initiatives (Ethical Performance, 2008). We see that, starting from reporting, CSR starts to be regulated. For now reporting of public companies and public interests investments are required to report and consider social and environmental issues. For sure that will expand to the private sector, maybe through contracting from public companies. Socially Responsible Investing (SRI) and Morally Responsible Investing (MRI) Calvert Investments states that SRI funds aim to integrate personal, social and environmental concerns with financial considerations, their objective is to increase investors wealth while ensuring that the selected companies have a positive impact on people and the Planet.. SRI funds are also known as Green Funds or Ethical Funds (Ghoul and Karam, 2007). Lydenberg and Sinclair (2009) argue that systematic corporate disclosure on social and environmental issues is increasingly demanded by responsible investors and consumers. SRI Funds are going a step further. SRI Funds demand their investments to be in an ethical way and in ethical sectors of economy. Usually SRI Mutual Funds are not involved with alcohol, gambling, tobacco and weapons production or distribution. Beyond that they pursue to have good performance is areas of welfare, board diversity, community relations, corporate governance, environment, human rights, indigenous peoples right, product safety and impact, and workplace practices (Lydenberg and Sinclair, 2009). Baue and Cook (2008) note there has been a changing behavior of mutual fund voting on climate change issues. Also public pension and investment funds have moved significantly on their transparency with respect to proxy voting (Global proxy Watch, 2008). Moreover in 2006 the United Nations Global Compact and the UN Environment Programme Finance Initiative lunched, at the New York Stock Exchange, the Principles for Responsible Investment, an initiative that aim to connect pension funds and money managers from around the world to commit to principles of responsible investment. As we see there is a turning to the way that investments are done. Beaver (2001) argues that institutional investors have been taking large and long-term positions in firms while playing more dominant role in corporate affairs. Also Warren (2002) notes that over 60% of shares are held by financial institutions, which seek the best returns on behalf of their investors [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] however, there is now a growing sector of the investment market that is guided by ethical criteria in the selection of its investment portfolio. At last Hendry et al. (2007) argue that the activism of public pension funds, and more recently of trade unions pension funds, has had greater effect on company-shareholder relationship. [..] Public pension funds, have taken the view that the pensioners of the future have an interest not only in financial returns but also in such things as environmental sustainability and ethically and socially responsible capitalism.. A different kind of responsible investment is the so-called Morally Responsible Investing (MRI). These are faith-based funds that invest in companies whose products and policies are consistent with the investors religious (usually moral) beliefs (Ghoul and Karam, 2007). There are basically two types of MRI funds, the Islamic Mutual Funds and the Christian Funds. Both are based on the religion and their investment is more focused on ethical (each in its own perception) field of investing and less on social or environmental contribution (Ghoul and Karam, 2007). That is the major difference with the common SRI funds. Conclusions When Milton Friedman was writing his famous book and essay couldnt predict these changes in the world. He was actually right when he argued that companies should act within rules of the game. Those rules have change. Cooper supports that companies of the 21st century have as an essential component of success a balanced approach of CSR issues. As we saw many of the rules are changed and keep changing. The image of a company is now more important than ever before. CSR makes the corporate image better. Also the way of investing had changed. Personal values of the investors or sustainability strategies of Mutual Funds are affecting the investors portfolio towards ethical and responsible investing. Regulatory systems are changing and moving towards more ethical accountability. The corporate scandals and the financial crisis triggered a reaction of multiple stakeholders that now demand a more regulatory system. Companies also start to support that, since they see that the bad actions of so me targeted whole industries (ex. Bonuses of bankers). Risk and sustainability strategies are becoming a mainstream in the business world. Those cant work if they are not connected with CSR strategies and responsible behaviors. Klein and Dawar (2004) propose that CSR has value to the firm as a form of insurance policy against negative events. There is still to see if these rules are going to change more and how are they going to interact with the market and companies behavior. Googins et al. (2007) argue that the rules of the game are to change, however this redefinition will need to encompass shifts that are legal, regulatory, theoretical and cultural.